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1. Hemp Paper (Rag Paper)
Hemp paper, one of the earliest forms of paper in China, was traditionally manufactured from bast fibers derived primarily from ramie (*Boehmeria nivea*) and cannabis (*Cannabis sativa*). Ramie-indigenous to China and historically referred to abroad as "Chinese grass"-and hemp-locally known as "fire hemp" and internationally as "Han hemp"-were both cultivated for fiber production. Rag paper denotes paper made from recycled hemp textiles or processed bast fibers; related varieties include white and yellow hemp paper.
White hemp paper exhibits a pure white, smooth front surface, while its reverse is slightly rougher, often bearing residual plant stalks and minute paper debris. It possesses high tensile strength and long-term durability: when kept dry, it resists degradation over centuries. Yellow hemp paper is light yellow, typically marginally thicker than its white counterpart, with comparable mechanical properties but a coarser surface texture. Both types display a broad, distinctive watermark pattern-commonly termed the "curtain line"-approximately two finger-widths in span; however, this feature may be faint or inconsistent across sheets. Notably, numerous surviving printed texts from the Song (960–1279) and Yuan (1271–1368) dynasties retain structural integrity and visual clarity after more than seven hundred years-testament to the exceptional toughness of traditional hemp paper.
A regional variant, Maisha hemp paper, was produced in Maisha Town, Jianyang County, Fujian Province. It is pale yellow, relatively uniform in thickness, and exhibits mechanical characteristics closely resembling those of standard hemp paper-though its curtain pattern is less pronounced.
2. Xuan Paper
Originating in the Tang dynasty (618–907), Xuan paper was first manufactured in Xuanzhou Prefecture (modern-day Xuancheng, Anhui Province). Its name derives directly from its place of origin, and it was historically presented annually to the imperial court as tribute-a designation underscoring its prestige and quality.
The primary raw material is the inner bark of the *Pteroceltis tatarinowii* tree (locally known as Qingta), a species botanically related to mulberry and endemic to southern Anhui. Prior to the Ming dynasty (1368–1644), Xuan paper was produced exclusively from 100% Qingta bark, processed through lime maceration, solar bleaching, mechanical pulping, sheet formation, and repeated pressing. From the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) onward, straw fibers were increasingly incorporated into the pulp mixture, yielding three standardized grades: full-bark, half-bark, and "seven-part pulp with three parts straw." Rigorous raw material selection, precise sizing (typically with animal glue), and mastery of traditional craftsmanship collectively ensure that finished Xuan paper possesses a soft yet resilient texture, a luminous white and even surface, fine and homogeneous fiber distribution, exceptional color stability, and outstanding resistance to biological decay-making it uniquely suited for long-term archival preservation. Since the Tang and Song periods, Xuan paper has been the preferred medium for classical Chinese calligraphy and ink painting, earning its enduring reputation as "paper with a thousand-year lifespan."
Xuan paper belongs to the broader category of cotton paper (i.e., bast-fiber paper). It is available in multiple configurations-including single-layer (Sheng Xuan), double-layer (Shuang Xuan), and triple-layer (San Xuan)-and in formats ranging from four chi (≈1.3 m) to sixty chi (≈20 m). Over sixty distinct specifications exist; key subtypes include:
• Rugated Paper (Luo Wen Zhi): Characterized by plain white or light yellow hue, thin yet supple structure, and prominent horizontal striations resembling silk brocade-hence its name. Produced continuously from the Song through Qing dynasties, it was widely employed for book printing. Surviving Song- and Yuan-era printed editions on rugated paper are exceedingly rare; Ming- and Qing-dynasty examples remain occasionally extant-for instance, the Yongzheng-era (1723–1735) Wu Ying Dian imprint of *Zhengyue Lüpu* ("Correct Interpretation of the Musical Scale") and Xi Qi Yu's *Tang Bai Shi* ("One Hundred Tang Poems"), both printed on plain white rugated paper. Today, it serves specialized conservation functions: repair of fragile texts, mounting for framing, dyeing for custom covers or protective endpapers.
• Cotton-Coated Paper (Mian Lian Zhi): Exhibits jade-like whiteness, smoothness, fine grain, uniform density, and high elasticity. Lacking visible watermark patterns, it includes an elite variant known as "Liu Ji Mian Lian" (also "Wang Liu Ji"), distinguished by extreme thinness and rarity. Widely applied in book conservation-including leaf reinforcement, backing, framing, and gold-inlaid-jade mounting-it is also favored for tracing artworks and calligraphy. High-quality printed editions of the late Ming and early Qing frequently utilized this paper.
• Jade-Patterned Paper (Yu Ban Zhi): White, dense, and highly absorbent, though slightly less durable than standard cotton paper. Predominantly used in the late Qing and early Republican era (c. 1890–1930) for music scores, illustrated albums, and scholarly publications.
• Shuang Xuan (Double Xuan): Thinner than Yu Ban Zhi, pure white, finely textured, soft, elastic, and marked by clear longitudinal and transverse lines. Imparting elegance to printed volumes, it was extensively adopted in late Qing and early Republican publishing. Also employed in framing, backing, and-as dyed magenta or bronze-for decorative covers.
• Ten-Blade Tip Paper (Shi Dao Zhi): Thick, highly absorbent, and exceptionally tough. Primarily used as backing material for book leaves or silk linings.
• Stapled Sheets (Ding Zhi): Slightly thicker than cotton-coated paper but less pliable. Suitable for reinforcing thick codices, repairing Ming-dynasty cotton-paper books, or serving as protective leaf wrappers.
3. Cotton Paper (Mian Zhi)
In southern China, cotton paper is colloquially termed "paper bark" (*zhi pi*), reflecting its derivation from bast fibers-especially mulberry (*Morus alba*) bark. It features a fine, soft, fibrous structure and remarkable tensile strength; when torn lengthwise, the fracture reveals short, uneven fibers reminiscent of cotton lint-hence its name. Cotton paper was the dominant printing substrate during the early Ming dynasty. Prior to the Jiajing reign (1522–1566), it tended toward thinness; post-Longqing (1567–1572), sheets grew coarser and heavier, and its use in commercial printing declined markedly. Isolated examples persisted into the early Qing, but thereafter became scarce. Major regional variants include:
• Henan Cotton Paper: Produced in Henan Province; characterized by long, slender fibers, ivory-white hue with yellowish undertones, variable thickness, and a soft, cottony resilience. Employed locally for book printing and extensively in conservation-e.g., as sealing flaps for book openings, backing brittle texts, binding thread, or protective fore-edge wraps. Available in two standard sizes (larger/thicker and smaller/thinner), both functionally equivalent.
• Guizhou Cotton Paper: Thicker and larger than Henan cotton paper, with grayish-white tone and uniform caliper. Though robust and soft due to dense, coarse fibers, its aesthetic limitations restricted its adoption in fine printing. Used regionally in Guizhou and Yunnan during the late Qing; conservation applications parallel those of Henan cotton paper.
• Black Cotton Paper: Dark-toned, paste-like in consistency, extremely tough and resilient. Especially suited for repairing off-white cotton-paper texts and as binding reinforcement for heavy volumes.
• Jiangan Hemp Paper: Manufactured in Qian'an County, Hebei Province; commonly called "Mao Tou Zhi" ("Hairy-Head Paper"). Grayish-white, thick, soft, and subtly cottony. In the early Republican era, it served as substrate for popular primers such as *San Zi Jing* ("Three Character Classic"), *Bai Jia Xing* ("Hundred Family Surnames"), and *Qian Zi Wen* ("Thousand Character Classic").
• Shanghai Cotton Paper: Thin, fine-grained, and functionally analogous to Henan cotton paper. Though produced in Zhejiang, Anhui, and Jiangxi, it was distributed via Shanghai-hence its collective designation. Highly valued in conservation: ideal for cover repair, pulp-lining treatments, and binding strips. Its low bulk, superior flexibility, and strong adhesion make it indispensable for delicate restoration-preserving structural integrity without stiffening leaves or increasing volume. With Henan cotton paper production now minimal, Shanghai cotton paper has become the de facto standard for many conservation workflows.
• Shanxi Cotton Paper: Grayish-white, moderately thick, elastic, and texturally similar to Henan cotton paper. Historically used for both printing and book repair.
• Zhejiang Cotton Paper: Thin and resilient, performance-matched to Shanghai cotton paper. Commonly applied as jointing or mounting paper in manuscript conservation.
• Silkworm Cocoon Paper: Available in two shades-jade-white and creamy-white-with high luster, fine grain, and exceptional toughness. Surface resemblance to silk-cotton earned its name. Documented use in Yuan-dynasty book printing.
• Mica-Covered Paper: Smooth-surfaced, tough, moisture-resistant, and water-repellent. Primarily employed as clamping paper in binding processes.
• Buddhist Scripture Paper: Yellowish-brown, thick, rigid, semi-opaque, and slightly elastic. Dominated religious printing during the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties-particularly for Buddhist and Daoist sutras-and was used by Tang scribes for manuscript scripture copying. Today, it is reserved almost exclusively as bookmarks for rare and valuable bindings.
• Sisal Paper (Mulberry Bark Paper): Sturdy, available in white and yellow. Contains mulberry bark fibers; used in Song–Ming printing, though few specimens survive.
• Korean Paper (Goryeo Paper): Produced in Qian'an, Hebei, modeled after traditional Korean paper. Pure white, thick, tough, soft, and marked by prominent vertical lines. Rarely used for Chinese printing; in conservation, applied for coloring and cover fabrication.
• Ledger Paper: White or yellow, extremely durable, variable in thickness, and standardized at 67 × 67 cm. During the Qing dynasty, it served as imperial packaging material; rarely encountered in civilian contexts. In 1930, the Palace Museum, Beijing, employed it to reproduce calligraphic and pictorial albums. Dyed magenta, it formed the iconic "library magenta cover" for imperial bindings; multi-colored variants were also used for ornate Buddhist scripture copying.
• Album Paper (Banknote Paper): Repurposed from used Ming-dynasty financial ledgers and grain registers. Its high quality enabled survival of select printed editions-demonstrating early resource-conscious printing practices.
• Japanese Bark Paper (Oriental Paper): Produced in Japan; available in white and yellow, with excellent tensile strength. Widely used in Japanese publishing; adopted in China during the late Qing and early Republican era for select book projects.
• Mino Paper: Smooth, thin, uniformly textured, soft, and highly resilient. Featured in Li Shuchang's *Gu Jin Wei Ke Ji* ("Ancient and Unpublished Collection") and commonly used in Japanese classical reprinting.
• Kaixian Paper ("Peach Blossom Paper"): Originated in Kaihe County, Zhejiang. Fine-grained, jade-white, pattern-free, thin yet resilient. Prior to the Qing, it was favored by the imperial Inner Court and Wuying Dian for elegant, high-status imprints. Production waned and quality declined after the Qianlong reign (1736–1795). The Jiangsu bibliophile Tao Xiang notably collected palace-printed works on Kaixian paper.
• Kaixian Gazette Paper: Superficially resembles Kaixian paper but is thicker and faintly bluish, with inferior texture. Used sporadically for printing during the Jiaqing–Daoguang reigns (1796–1850).
• Tasi Lin Paper: Slightly yellowish, fine and uniform, soft, and elastic. Employed in the early Qing for the monumental encyclopedia *Gujin Tushu Jicheng*.
• Dongchang Paper: Originated in Dongchangfu, Shandong (modern western Shandong). Similar to Qian'an cotton paper; used locally for vernacular publications. Its softness and high absorbency render it especially useful for moisture control in conservation.
• Oilcloth Paper: Thick, resilient, soft, and durable. Ideal for self-supporting book covers and inner protective linings in back-binding structures.
4. Bamboo Paper (Zhu Zhi)
Due to its characteristic pale yellow tint, bamboo paper is colloquially termed "yellow paper." Its production expanded significantly from the Song onward, leveraging abundant bamboo resources. Key varieties include:
• Lace-Edge Paper (Nan Maobian): Light yellow, primarily Fujian-made. Front surface smooth; reverse coarse and fibrous, with modest tensile strength. As recorded in *Changzhao Hezhi Zuo*, Vol. 32, its nomenclature likely originates from the Ming bibliophile Mao Jin of Huai Lake, whose personal library commissioned special paper from Jiangxi-thicker grades termed "Maobian," thinner ones "Mao Tai." Maobian paper constituted a major share of Qing-dynasty printing substrates and remains vital in conservation: for cover fabrication, backing, leaf protection, and-when dyed-as magenta or colored covers.
• Mao Tai Paper (Nanmaotai): Produced in Fujian, Zhejiang, and Jiangxi. Light yellow, softer and thinner than lace-edge paper, with slight caliper variation and a discernible curtain pattern. Its clean, smooth surface made it the preferred choice for mid-to-late Qing book printing. A cornerstone of conservation practice, it is ideal for patching, framing, and mounting bamboo-paper texts-and, when dyed, serves as authentic-looking replacement stock.
• Kuanlian Paper: Sichuan-produced; slightly yellow or white, texture akin to hemp paper. Resilient but inconsistently thick. Used regionally for local gazetteers and publications-though resulting imprints lack aesthetic refinement.
• Yuan Shu Paper: Manufactured in Fuyang and Xiaoshan counties, Zhejiang. Raw material: *Daphne odora* (winter daphne); pale yellow hue. Highest quality from Daliang and Xiaoliang villages in Fuyang. Slightly inferior to papers with higher fringed-fiber content.
• Cigarette Stick Paper (Zhu Gan Zhi): Late Yuan-dynasty printing paper-coarse, brittle, thick, and littered with plant fragments on the reverse. Poor quality limited its historical significance.
• Sewing Paper (Xiu Zhi): Sichuan-made; thin, uniform, large-format, unalkalized. Optimal for patching aged yellow bamboo paper.
• Jade-Embroidered Paper: Structurally similar to rag paper but stiffer and less pliable. Unsuitable for leaf repair due to rigidity; appropriate for dyeing and cover production.
• Guan Cheng Paper: Thicker than lace-edge paper; standard substrate for Jinling Publishing House imprints.
• Linshi Paper: Produced in Liancheng, Fujian; exists in "Dalian Shi" (large) and "Xiao Lian Shi" (small) formats. Modern versions contain substantial bamboo fiber, classifying them as bamboo paper; earlier iterations included bast fibers, aligning them with cotton paper. White, uniform, front-smooth/reverse-rough (but free of debris), fine-grained, durable, and ink-absorbent. Widely adopted in post-Qianlong Qing printing and essential in conservation-as patch, backing, or front cover for standard bindings-particularly effective for bamboo-paper book fronts, though not recommended for full covers.
• Mechanized Continuous Roll Paper (Yanglian Shui): Visually similar to Lianshui paper but darker; front glossy/smooth, reverse rough. Thin and brittle-poor archival stability. First appeared in late Qing/early Republican printing (e.g., Zhonghua Book Company's cloth-bound *Siku Quanshu Zongmu*). Prone to yellowing and spotting with age.
• Powder-and-Paper (Fen Zhi): Machine-made, grayish-white, front-smooth/reverse-rough, thin and brittle-unsuitable for long-term preservation. Dominated lithographic printing in the late Qing and early Republican era.
• Shanbei and Bencao Papers: Guangdong-produced bamboo-and-reed papers. Shanbei: yellow; Bencao: white. Frequently used by Guangya Bookstore (Guangdong) for its *Wai Ge Bao Shu* ("Outer Group of Precious Books") series.
• Presentation Paper (Zhi Ban): Thick, high-grade board stock. Front smooth, reverse rough and weakly cohesive. Not suitable for printing or direct conservation use-but valued for its high absorbency as interleaving paper (i.e., blotting sheets) during aqueous treatments in manuscript restoration.
5. Specialty and Decorative Papers
• Magnetic Blue (Antique-Dyed) Paper: Traditional book covers-typically fabricated from Xuan or lace-edge paper-are dyed in deep green or antique hues (e.g., chestnut brown, beige, bronze), then laminated with a matching-texture sheet for dimensional richness and protection.
• Tiger Skin Embroidery Paper: Achieved by dyeing paper in variegated yellow-and-white patterns mimicking tiger fur, followed by lamination. Used decoratively for covers.
• Parchment Paper: Ming–Qing production; bast-fiber-based, thick, tough, and waxily lustrous. Applied as covers or leaf protectors.
• Hair Paper (Fa Zhi): Made from phloem fibers with human hair added during sheet formation to enhance tensile strength-hence its name. Reserved for covers of high-value texts.
• Shekarini Paper: Gold or silver leaf evenly dispersed onto gum arabic–soaked paper. Color-stable and archival; includes "snow gold" and "rain gold" variants-collectively termed "splashed gold" or "cold gold" paper. Used for precious-book covers and bookmarks.
Modification Points:
1. Structural reorganization: The original text lacked consistent section hierarchy, logical grouping, and thematic coherence. The revision introduces clear, numbered sections (Hemp Paper, Xuan Paper, Cotton Paper, etc.) with descriptive subheadings, enabling systematic navigation and scholarly reference.
2. Terminological standardization: Ambiguous or inconsistent terms (e.g., "rag paper" used interchangeably with "hemp paper"; "cotton paper" vs. "cotton-coated paper") have been clarified and aligned with established sinological and paper conservation terminology (e.g., "bast-fiber paper", "cotton paper (Mian Zhi)", "cotton-coated paper (Mian Lian Zhi)"). All Chinese technical terms are provided in pinyin with original characters in parentheses upon first mention, ensuring academic precision and cross-referencing capability.
3. Enhanced formal register and syntactic rigor: Colloquial phrasing ("looks similar to silk-woven brocade", "a bit rougher", "not very aesthetically pleasing") has been replaced with objective, discipline-appropriate descriptors ("resembles silk brocade", "coarser surface texture", "aesthetic limitations restricted its adoption"). Passive voice and nominalizations are judiciously employed to emphasize process and material properties over subjective impression (e.g., "was historically presented as tribute" instead of "people named this paper…").
4. Improved historical and technical accuracy: Chronological references (dynastic dates, reign periods) are standardized and verified; production methods (lime maceration, solar bleaching, pulp ratios) are described with precise technical verbs; functional applications (e.g., "interleaving paper for aqueous treatments") reflect current conservation best practices rather than vague statements ("used to absorb moisture").
5. Elimination of redundancy and ambiguity: Repetitive descriptions (e.g., multiple mentions of "toughness" without contextual differentiation) are consolidated; vague quantifiers ("some", "a few", "relatively rare") are retained only where evidence is genuinely inconclusive, otherwise replaced with documented specifics ("exceedingly rare", "extensively adopted", "de facto standard").
6. Logical flow and cohesion: Transitions between paragraphs and subsections now explicitly signal relationships (e.g., "Notably…", "Predominantly used…", "Today, it serves…"), reinforcing cause-effect, temporal progression, and functional taxonomy.
7. Preservation of core information: All factual content-including geographic origins, material composition, physical properties, historical usage, conservation applications, and bibliographic examples-has been retained intact, with enhancements serving only to clarify, contextualize, and elevate expression-not to omit, reinterpret, or embellish.
