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The craft traditionally required extensive training, and artisans often guarded its techniques closely, as knowledge was rarely shared among competitors. In the 13th century, paper was primarily manufactured from pulped linen and cotton fibers.
The pulp is thoroughly mixed in a large vat, after which a vatman dips a wire mesh mold-framed by a wooden deckle-into the suspension and lifts it horizontally, capturing a uniform layer of fibers to form a sheet. The deckle creates a raised edge that prevents the watery pulp from spilling, while the interaction between the mold and deckle produces irregular, feathered edges known as "deckle edges."
Immediately after formation, the wet sheet is transferred onto a felt blanket and covered with another, forming a sandwich structure. This stack is then pressed to remove excess water before being hung to dry in a clean, dust-free environment. Paper processed in this manner is referred to as "felt-side paper." In European papermaking traditions, the vatman typically formed the sheets, while a separate worker, the coucher, handled the transfer and pressing stages.
Early European papermakers commonly used rags composed of cotton or flax fibers. These materials were cleaned, soaked in an alkaline solution, washed, and mechanically reduced to pulp. Most mills relied on water power to drive trip hammers that beat the fibers. Once the pulp was prepared, bleaching agents were introduced to improve whiteness. The vatman would then immerse the mold into the diluted pulp, lift it evenly, and allow the water to drain, leaving a coherent mat of interwoven fibers.
After removal from the mold, multiple sheets were stacked and compressed under high pressure using a screw press, reducing the pile's height by up to one-third. The dried sheets were subsequently treated with gelatin sizing to reduce absorbency and improve surface quality. Each sheet was smoothed manually with a polished stone, although later advancements enabled hydraulic-powered machines to perform this finishing step.
What colors did historical paper exhibit, and how did additives affect its properties?
White paper was most valued during the medieval period. Lower-quality grades, made from inferior or recycled materials, exhibited hues ranging from light brown to pale gray. Prior to the early 19th century, chemical bleaching methods were unknown; thus, papermakers depended on naturally white fibers, particularly high-grade linen, to achieve brightness. Cotton and linen fabrics at the time were handwoven without chemical treatments. Until the late 17th century, much British paper retained a coarse, grayish appearance. French producers sometimes added bluing agents to counteract dull tones. Paper production in winter posed challenges due to turbid water, which hindered clarification and affected pulp quality.
High-quality paper was expected to be free of impurities. Both medieval and modern handmade papers face similar challenges in avoiding foreign inclusions. During sheet formation, stray hairs from workers or felt makers could become embedded. Other contaminants, such as insects or plant debris, might also be trapped in the wet sheet.
Blotting paper was first documented in 1465. It appeared as a rough, unmeasured gray sheet, fragments of which appear in 15th-century records. Its primary function was to absorb excess ink. As noted in W. Horman's Vulgaria (1519): "Blotting paper is used to dry our writing and prevent smudging or staining."
Brown paper emerged around 1570–1571 and was sold in bundles priced between two shillings and two shillings four pence.
What constitutes a watermark?
A watermark is a design formed by attaching fine wires to the surface of a paper mold's mesh. These raised elements compress the fiber layer during formation, resulting in thinner areas that appear translucent when held to light. Watermarks may incorporate distorted shapes secured with thread-like wires, integrated with the mold's chain lines and laid lines. On older papers, the stitching threads are often visible, especially when they match the gauge of the structural wires.
"Papermaker's tears" refer to defects caused by droplets falling onto freshly formed sheets, creating localized thin spots.
Regarding dimensions:
Standardization of paper size was not a priority for early papermakers. During the 15th and 16th centuries, demand for varied sizes was limited, and little differentiation existed. Only with the widespread adoption of variable-format printing presses did standardized paper dimensions become necessary.
Mysterious symbols:
Some scholars, including Margaret Stabard and the 19th-century Scottish researcher Harold Bailey, speculated that certain watermarks functioned as covert symbols associated with pre-Reformation mystical sects, such as the Albigeois and Vaudois in France, or the Cathari and Patarini in Italy-groups linked to Protestant esotericism or Gnosticism.
Beyond watermarks, other manufacturing traces remain visible. Fiber distribution provides insight into paper quality and processing. Irregular thickness or cloudiness suggests inadequate beating of pulp, floating fiber clumps, or uneven dispersion. Such lower-grade paper, though more affordable, was suitable for packaging, drafting, or administrative use.
The influence of paper in Europe:
While paper profoundly influenced societies in Asia and the Middle East-where it was employed in official, religious, artistic, and hygienic contexts-its initial impact in Western Europe was minimal.
Several factors delayed its acceptance. First, paper was perceived as an innovation of Islamic civilization, which many Europeans viewed with hostility. Consequently, adopting paper was seen by some as endorsing an adversarial culture. Additionally, Christian authorities often regarded it as emblematic of Muslim tradition and resisted its use.
Economic interests also played a role. Wealthy landowners derived income from livestock raised for parchment and vellum production-the dominant writing materials at the time. Widespread adoption of paper threatened their economic stability. It was only as Islamic influence declined and the utility of paper became evident-particularly with the advent of the printing press-that paper gained broad acceptance across Europe.
