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What is paper?
True paper consists of thin sheets composed of interwoven fibers that have been mechanically or chemically processed until individual filaments become independent units, forming a cohesive sheet through hydrogen bonding.
During the Middle Ages, paper was primarily manufactured from cotton and flax fibers, which were diluted in water to create a slurry. This suspension was then transferred onto a fine sieve-functionally analogous to a mesh screen-where the water drained away, leaving behind a uniform layer of entangled fibers. Once dried, this fibrous mat constituted paper.
Although often mistaken for paper, papyrus is not true paper. It is produced from the Cyperus papyrus plant, an aquatic species belonging to the sedge family (Cyperaceae). The triangular green stems grow from thick rhizomes and are cut longitudinally into thin strips using a metal blade. These strips are arranged in overlapping layers-typically cross-laminated-and pressed together without full fiber separation, resulting in a structure more akin to laminated wood than true paper.
Similarly, parchment and calfskin [1] do not qualify as paper. These materials are derived from treated animal skins and differ fundamentally in composition and production method.
Origins of Papermaking
The form of paper known today was refined and institutionalized by Cai Lun, a eunuch official of the Eastern Han Dynasty (25–220 AD). While 105 AD is traditionally cited as the year of invention, historical records indicate that paper was already in use at least two centuries earlier. Archaeological findings further suggest that rudimentary papermaking may date back to as early as 300 BC. Early Chinese paper was typically made from macerated fibers of hemp, mulberry bark, or bamboo.
One of the earliest Western accounts of Chinese papermaking appears in "The Travels of Marco Polo," which describes how Chinese emperors guarded the process closely. According to Polo, high-quality paper was produced from various plant-based materials, including straw, tea leaves, bamboo strips, and discarded hemp cloth.
By the 8th century, paper was in use across Central Asia, though its precise transmission route remains debated. Al-Tha'alibi, an 11th-century historian, recorded that after the Battle of Talas in 751, Chinese prisoners captured during the conflict introduced papermaking techniques to Samarkand. However, Jonathan Bloom, a scholar of Islamic and Asian art specializing in paper and printing history, considers this account improbable. Archaeological evidence suggests that Samarkand had already been producing and using paper decades prior to 751.
From Central Asia, papermaking spread westward to Damascus, Egypt, and Morocco. It took nearly five centuries for the technology to reach Europe. By the end of the 10th century, paper had largely replaced parchment and papyrus throughout the Islamic world.
Eastern Medieval Paper
Paper produced in the medieval Islamic East can be distinguished by its strong texture, smooth and often glossy surface, and absence of watermarks (see below).
European Paper
The earliest documented reference to rag-based paper in Europe comes from Peter, Abbot of Cluny (1122–1150 AD). Several surviving manuscripts were either written on Eastern-made paper or produced using Oriental methods within European territories. The oldest known paper document is a contract issued by King Roger II of Sicily in 1102. Additional royal documents from 12th-century Sicily exist, as well as a notarized record from Geneva dating to 1154. The earliest extant imperial paper charter is one granted by Frederick II to Sister Goteschal of Styria in 1228, now preserved in Vienna.
In 1231, Frederick II prohibited the use of paper for official state documents, mandating instead the use of parchment. In Venice, the Liber Plegiorum (account records from 1223) was written on coarse paper, as were later registers such as those of the Council of Ten beginning in 1325 and the records of Emperor Henry VII (1308–1313), kept in Turin. The British Museum holds an even earlier example: Italian astronomical treatises written on fine-quality paper in the first half of the 13th century. At the Public Record Office, a letter from Raymond, son of Raymond, Duke of Narbonne and Count of Toulouse, addressed to Henry III of England between 1216 and 1222, survives on paper. Correspondence from Castile to Edward I of England in 1279 and subsequent years exemplifies Spanish-made paper.
Historical sources indicate that Empress Irene of Greece used paper by the late 13th century; however, with one questionable exception, no Greek manuscript predating the mid-13th century has survived on paper.
Introduction of Papermaking to Europe
The Muslim conquest of the Iberian Peninsula facilitated the introduction of papermaking into Europe. The English term "ream" (denoting 500 sheets) originates from the Arabic word "rizmah," transmitted via Spanish and French as "resma" or "ramme," meaning "a bundle."
Both Spain and Italy claim to be among the first European producers of paper. One of the earliest known paper mills in Europe was located in Xàtiva, an ancient city in Valencia, Spain, with records dating to 1151 AD. Some scholars argue that Arab craftsmen established a paper factory there around 1009 AD. Paper production continued under Moorish rule until 1244, when the Moors were expelled. Subsequently, the craft gradually diffused into Christian Europe.
The earliest known metal-mesh mold used in papermaking was discovered in Spain and dates to approximately 1150 AD. While bamboo molds were common in China, they were impractical in Europe due to limited availability. Bamboo imparts flexibility to molds, but rigid metal screens proved more effective for processing textile rags. Europeans also developed paper pressing frames [2] to consolidate sheets and enhance structural integrity.
Primary raw materials included linen, flax, and later cotton-all reduced to pulp through mechanical beating and mixed with water. The resulting sheets were formed, pressed, dried, and hardened.
It was not until the advent of printing in the mid-15th century that demand for paper surged significantly. A notable early depiction of papermaking is Jost Amman's 1568 woodcut "Der Papierer," included in "The Little Book of Trades."
The Italian Paper Industry
In Italy, Fabriano, located in the Marche region (then part of the Principality of Ancona), emerged as the first major center of paper production. A paper mill was established there in 1276, rising in importance as Spanish production declined. The earliest official documentation confirming the existence of the paper industry in Fabriano dates to 1283-a notarial deed recording the purchase of a house by a papermaker, witnessed by six other papermakers. This document confirms the presence of multiple mills and implies a well-established industrial network.
Fabriano pioneered the use of water-powered machinery for pulping, replacing labor-intensive manual processes.
A paper factory was founded in Treviso in 1340, followed by others in Florence, Bologna, Parma, Milan, and Venice. Northern Italian mills supplied paper to southern Germany well into the 15th century. The earliest German mills reportedly appeared between Cologne and Mainz, with one in Mainz established around 1320. Ulman Stromer founded a mill in Nuremberg in 1390, assisted by skilled Italian workers. Regensburg and Augsburg also became early centers. In western Germany, the Netherlands, and the United Kingdom, paper was initially imported from France and Burgundy, later distributed through commercial hubs such as Bruges, Antwerp, and Cologne.
The first paper mill in France was established in the Hérault region in 1189. By the second half of the 14th century, paper had become widely accepted for literary and administrative purposes across Western Europe. During the 15th century, vellum was increasingly supplanted by paper. Some later manuscripts combined both materials, typically using parchment for outer folios or covers while employing paper for inner pages.
The paper industry in Fabriano was dominated by powerful local families. In 1436, a parliamentary ordinance prohibited anyone within a 50-mile radius of Fabriano from manufacturing paper or disclosing its techniques outside the jurisdiction, under penalty of a 50-ducat fine.
Subsequent legislation imposed harsher penalties. Violators were declared "traitors," banned from the city, and subject to confiscation of property. A 1445 decree underscored the local government's commitment to protecting Fabriano's technological advantage. Fearing the loss of specialized knowledge, authorities required Master Piero di Stefano-the only artisan in the Marche region proficient in modular sieve-making-to train his son or an apprentice. He was forbidden from constructing or repairing molds outside Fabriano, under penalty of a 100-ducat fine.
The British Paper Industry
Evidence indicates that paper was used for administrative registration and accounting in England as early as the 14th century. The British Museum possesses a register from the Court of Lemregis with entries dating to 1309. The paper used was of poor quality, comparable to early Spanish varieties.
Documentation on the early history of English papermaking is sparse. The first known manufacturer was John Tate, who reportedly established a paper workshop in Hertford in the early 16th century.
The first commercially successful paper mill in Britain was established in Dartford on the River Darent in 1588. Founded by John Spilman (also spelled Spearman), a German entrepreneur who served as goldsmith to Elizabeth I and James I, the mill benefited from royal patronage and monopolistic privileges.
In 1588, Spilman received a royal lease for two mills at the Biggin Estate in Dartford, situated along the fast-flowing Darent River. He invested heavily in repairs and upgrades, spending an estimated £1,500-an enormous sum at the time. Whether Spilman possessed technical expertise in papermaking is uncertain, but he likely employed skilled German papermakers at the site. The Dartford mill became the first viable British factory capable of producing high-quality white paper. Its picturesque location also made it one of the earliest tourist attractions in the town.
The poem "The Paper Mill" by Thomas Churchyard offers a contemporary description of the papermaking process:
There is a fair place near Dartford now,
Where Spilman and his kin may dwell;
That mill itself must be a rare sight,
So simple yet so finely built.
Constructed of timber and hollowed trunks,
It thunders loud with constant beat,
Like fulling cloth in tenter frames,
Displaying all things strange and neat.
Let rotten rags foam thick and white,
Washed clean and bleached as snow;
Then laid upon the moulds to dry,
Fit now for writing, row on row,
Rubbed smooth with oilstone, bright and tight.
Spilman's operation enjoyed extensive monopolies. In February 1589, he obtained a patent granting exclusive rights to collect or trade linen rags, old fishing nets, and other textile waste suitable for white paper production. No other party could establish a paper mill without his consent.
In July 1597, Spilman secured a new 14-year patent reaffirming his monopoly and authorizing him and his agents to search suspected locations for hidden rags or unauthorized paper production. This tightly controlled system aimed to prevent competition in the production of premium white paper.
John Spilman was knighted by James I at Dartford, an honor likely recognizing both his service as a royal jeweler and his contributions to the development of the British paper industry.
Sir John died in 1626. A memorial tomb in Holy Trinity Church features colorful effigies of him and his first wife, Elizabeth Menger, daughter of a Nuremberg merchant.
Between 1588 and 1650, approximately 37 paper mills operated in England, most producing low-grade brown paper. Only after Spilman's monopoly lapsed did a broader shift toward white paper production emerge.
