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Paper, one of the Four Great Inventions of ancient China, is a sheet-like fibrous material derived from plant fibers suspended in water following pulping treatment. These fibers are interwoven on a screen, initially dehydrated, and subsequently pressed and dried. It serves multiple purposes, including writing, printing, painting, and packaging.
(1) Hemp Paper
In ancient China, ramie and hemp were the primary flax plants used in papermaking. Ramie, native to China, is internationally known as "Chinese grass," while hemp, also indigenous to China and commonly referred to as "fire hemp," is known abroad as "Han hemp." Hemp paper is produced from hemp fibers and includes several common varieties:
1. White Hemp Paper and Jute Paper
White hemp paper has a smooth, pure white front surface, while the reverse is slightly rough, often with residual plant stalks and paper fragments. It is characterized by high durability and resistance to degradation when kept dry. Jute paper is light yellow in color and generally thicker than white hemp paper, sharing similar properties but appearing coarser. Both types exhibit a relatively wide paper grain (also known as curtain texture), approximately two fingers in length, although in some cases the texture may be less distinct. Hemp paper demonstrates excellent tensile strength; numerous printed editions from the Song and Yuan dynasties have survived over a thousand years in remarkably preserved condition.
2. Linen Paper
Produced in Masha Town, Jianyang, Fujian Province, this paper has a slightly yellow hue. Its paper grain is not prominent, and its thickness and resilience are comparable to those of white hemp paper.
(2) Xuan Paper
During the Tang Dynasty, a high-quality paper was produced in Xuanzhou Prefecture, Anhui Province, which local officials regularly presented as tribute to the imperial court. The paper was subsequently named Xuan paper after its place of origin.
The primary raw material of Xuan paper is the bark of Pterocarpus indicus, a tree similar to mulberry and native to southern Anhui. Prior to the Ming Dynasty, Xuan paper was made entirely from green sandalwood bark, processed with lime, sun-bleached, pulped, and formed. From the Qing Dynasty onward, a mixture of sandalwood bark and rice straw was adopted, resulting in different classifications such as full-bark, half-bark, and seven-part bark with three-part straw. Due to rigorous raw material selection, precise glue application, and advanced craftsmanship, Xuan paper exhibits a soft yet resilient texture, uniform whiteness, fine surface, and long-term color stability. It is resistant to insect damage and suitable for long-term preservation. Since the Tang and Song dynasties, it has been the preferred medium for Chinese calligraphy and painting, earning the reputation of "paper with a lifespan of a thousand years."
Xuan paper falls under the cotton paper category and comes in numerous forms, including single-layer, double-layer, and triple-layer laminated types. Standard sizes include four-foot, five-foot, six-foot, eight-foot, two-zhang, and six-zhang sheets, totaling over 60 varieties. Common types include:
1. Ribbed Paper
Available in plain white and light yellow, ribbed paper has a fine, thin, and soft texture with visible horizontal stripes. Its elasticity and silk-like appearance give it its name. Widely used during the Song, Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties for book printing, surviving examples from the Song and Yuan periods are rare. Notable instances include the Yongzheng-era Wuying Palace edition of *Lu Zhengyi* and Xi Qiyu's engraving of *Tang Hundred Schools of Poetry*, both printed on plain white ribbed paper. This paper is ideal for mending fine books or mounting pages and can be dyed for use as book covers or leaf guards.
2. Cotton-Lined Paper
This paper resembles jade in whiteness and luster, with a fine, soft, dense, and uniformly textured surface and no obvious patterns. A particularly thin variant, known as "Liuji Cotton Lian" or "Wang Liuji," is considered premium and rare. Cotton-lined paper is suitable for filling, leaf protection, inlaying, and lining in book restoration. It is especially valued for gold-inlaid jade mounting and can be dyed for cover applications. It is also used for rubbing inscriptions and steles. High-quality printed editions from the late Ming and early Qing periods frequently employed this paper.
3. Yubanxuan
Yubanxuan is white, thick, and finely textured, with strong water absorption, though slightly less resilient than cotton paper. It was commonly used in the late Qing Dynasty and early Republic of China for seals, books, and albums.
4. Dan Xuan
Also known as "half-material paper," Dan Xuan is thinner than Yubanxuan, with a pure white color, fine and uniform texture, softness, and good resilience. It displays distinct vertical and horizontal curtain patterns. Books printed on Dan Xuan exhibit elegance and refinement and were widely used from the late Qing to the early Republic of China. It is also suitable for mounting and backing and can be dyed in magnetic blue or bronze tones for cover use.
5. Ten Knife Heads
A heavy single-leaf paper, thicker than standard single-leaf paper, with high water absorption and excellent toughness. It is commonly used as foil for book leaves and silk.
6. Laminated Paper
Slightly thicker than cotton paper but less soft, laminated paper is suitable for inlaying thick paper books, repairing Ming dynasty cotton paper books, or serving as leaf protection.
(3) Cotton Paper
Known as "bark paper" in southern China, cotton paper is a high-strength paper made from materials such as *Broussonetia papyrifera* (楮) bark. It has a fine, soft texture, rich fiber content, and exceptional resilience. When torn longitudinally, short, uneven fibers appear at the break, giving rise to its name. During the early Ming Dynasty, cotton paper was widely used for book printing. Before the Jiajing reign, it was thin and fine; afterward, it became coarser and thicker, and its use declined significantly. By the early Qing Dynasty, only a few books were printed on cotton paper, and such examples are now rare. Major varieties include:
1. Henan Cotton Paper
Produced in Henan Province, this paper has long, slender fibers and a white-to-light-yellow hue. Its thickness varies considerably, and the texture is relatively coarse, yet it remains soft and highly resilient. Historically used for book printing in Henan, it is valuable in ancient book restoration for leaf edging, mounting brittle books, binding pins, or cover substitutes. It can be dyed to mimic aged paper. Available in large (thicker) and small (thinner) sheets, both serve similar functions.
2. Guizhou Cotton Paper
Produced in Guizhou, this paper is thicker and larger than Henan cotton paper, with a slightly grayish-white color and uniform thickness. It has high cotton content, coarse fibers, and a soft, durable texture. While less aesthetically pleasing for printing, it saw limited use in Guizhou and Yunnan during the late Qing Dynasty. Its applications in book restoration mirror those of Henan cotton paper.
3. Black Cotton Paper
Darker in color with a paste-like texture, this paper holds ink well and is highly resilient. It is suitable for repairing non-white cotton paper books and can be used to create sturdy linings for large, thick volumes.
4. Qian'an Cotton Paper
Produced in Qian'an County, Hebei Province, and commonly known as "Maotou paper," it is grayish-white, thick, loose, and slightly cotton-like. In the early Republic of China, it was used for printing folk educational texts such as the *Three-Character Classic*, *Hundred Family Surnames*, and *Thousand Character Text*.
5. Shanghai Cotton Paper
Thin and fine in texture, closely resembling Henan cotton paper, it is produced in Zhejiang, Anhui, and Jiangxi but primarily distributed through Shanghai. Ideal for repairing book edges and pulp linings in wind-damaged books, it has largely replaced Henan cotton paper due to low recent output. Its thinness and cotton-like properties ensure firm mounting without added bulk or stiffness, making it indispensable in ancient book restoration.
6. Shanxi Cotton Paper
Produced in Shanxi Province, it is grayish-white, slightly thick, and highly resilient, with a texture similar to Henan cotton paper. Used both for printing and book restoration.
7. Zhejiang Cotton Paper
Produced in Zhejiang, it is thin and flexible, performing similarly to Shanghai cotton paper. Suitable for edge joining and mounting in ancient book restoration.
8. Silkworm Cocoon Paper
Available in jade-white and milky white, this paper is fine, thin, lustrous, and highly resilient. Its silk-like surface appearance gives it its name. It was used for book printing during the Yuan Dynasty.
9. Mica Paper
Smooth-surfaced and highly resilient, mica paper is suitable for mending and twisting. It exhibits strong water resistance and moisture tolerance.
10. Sutra Paper
Yellowish-brown, resembling tea in color, this paper is thick, hard, slightly cottony, and opaque. Widely used in Buddhist and Taoist scriptures during the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, it was originally used by Tang people for copying Buddhist sutras. Today, it is primarily used as a bookmark for framing rare books.
11. Mulberry Bark Paper
Firm in texture and available in yellow and white, this paper derives its name from the inclusion of mulberry bark in its raw materials. It was used for book printing during the Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, though few examples survive.
12. Korean Paper
Produced in Qian'an, Hebei, this paper resembles traditional Korean book paper. It is white, clean, thick, tough, fluffy, and marked by distinct straight lines. Rarely used in Chinese book printing, it is primarily employed in restoration for dyeing into book covers.
13. Kujian Paper
Available in white and yellow, it possesses exceptional toughness and variable thickness. Sheets measure 67×67 cm. During the Qing Dynasty, it was used as wrapping paper in the imperial palace and rarely circulated among the public. In 1930, the Beijing Palace Museum used it to photocopy calligraphy and album copies. Thick Kujian paper, dyed magnetic blue, was commonly used for imperial book covers-known as "Ku magnetic blue covers." It was also used for copying Buddhist scriptures with five-color nested writing, producing elegant results.
14. Booklet Paper
Also known as Treasury Banknote Paper, it originated from repurposed financial documents in the Ming Dynasty to conserve paper. Due to its high quality, some printed copies have survived to the present day.
15. Japanese Parchment
Produced in Japan and also known as Toyo Paper, it comes in yellow and white varieties and features resilient cotton-like fibers. Widely used in Japanese book printing, it was also adopted in China during the late Qing and early Republican periods.
16. Masking Paper
Smooth, thin, uniform, soft, and resilient, this paper was partially used by Li Shuchang for the *Ancient Elegance Series*. It was also widely used in Japanese ancient book printing.
17. Kaihua Paper
Known in the south as "peach blossom paper," it originates from Kaihua County, Zhejiang Province. It is fine-textured, jade-white, free of curtain patterns, thin, and resilient. In the early Qing Dynasty, it was favored by the Inner Court and Wuying Hall for engraved books, producing elegant printed works. After the Jiaqing reign, production declined and quality diminished, reducing its use in book printing. Tao Xiang, a book collector from Wujin, Jiangsu, particularly prized palace-edition books printed on Kaihua paper.
18. Kaihua List Paper
Resembling Kaihua paper but thicker and slightly bluish, its texture is somewhat inferior. Some books during the Jiaqing and Daoguang reigns (1796–1850) were printed on this paper.
19. Taishi Lianzhi
Slightly more yellowish than Kaihua paper, with a fine, uniform, soft, and resilient texture. In the early Qing Dynasty, it was used for large-scale publications such as *Gujin Tushu Jicheng*.
20. Dongchang Paper
Produced in Dongchangfu, Shandong Province (modern western Shandong), it resembles Qian'an cotton paper. Locally used for printing popular reading materials, its softness and high absorbency make it ideal for moisture control in ancient book restoration.
21. Oil Shirt Paper
Thick, flexible, soft, and durable, this paper is ideal for book covers, requiring no additional mounting. Particularly suitable for creating protective leaf covers for backpack-style bindings.
(4) Bamboo Paper
Commonly referred to as "yellow paper" due to its slight yellow tint, bamboo paper encompasses many varieties:
1. Rough-Edge Paper (Nanmao Bian)
Light yellow in color and primarily produced in Fujian, this paper has a smooth front and rough back with poor toughness. According to Volume 32 of *Changzhao Hezhi Draft*, collectors seeking fine books often sought paper used by Mao Jin of Yinhu, specially commissioned from Jiangxi. Thick variants were called "Mao Bian," and thin ones "Mao Tai"-names that persist today. Much Qing Dynasty book printing used rough-edge paper. In restoration, it is used for mounting covers, backing, or leaf protection and can be dyed magnetic blue or colored for covers.
2. Maotai Paper (Southern Maotai Paper)
Produced in Fujian, Zhejiang, and Jiangxi, it shares characteristics with rough-edge paper but is smaller and slightly thinner. It has a gentle texture, uneven thickness, and clear curtain patterns. Its clean, smooth surface led to widespread use in mid-Qing Dynasty book printing. Essential for mending old books, it is suitable for bamboo paper book repair, inlaying, and mounting, and can be dyed as a substitute for antique paper.
3. Chuanlian Paper
Produced in Sichuan, it ranges from slightly yellow to white, with a texture similar to Maotai paper. Flexible but uneven in thickness, it was mainly used for local publications, including some Sichuan county chronicles. The resulting prints were not particularly refined.
4. Yuan Dynasty Paper
Produced in Fuyang and Xiaoshan, Zhejiang, with the best quality from Da and Xiao Ling in Fuyang. Made from dianthus, it is slightly yellow and inferior to rough-edge paper.
5. Stem Stick Paper
Used in the late Yuan Dynasty for book printing, it had a rough texture, coarse surface, and visible grass shavings on the back. Thick and brittle, it earned its name accordingly.
6. Sai Lianzhi
Produced in Sichuan, it is thin, uniform, and large-sized, alum-free, making it ideal for pasting yellow bamboo paper books.
7. Jade Buckle Paper
Similar to rough-edge paper but less soft, its thickness and hardness make it unsuitable for leaf mending but appropriate for dyeing into book covers.
8. Official Piles Paper
Slightly thicker than rough-edge paper, it was commonly used by Jinling Bookstore for printing.
9. Lianshi Paper
Named after Liancheng, Fujian, it comes in large ("Dalian Shi") and small ("Xiaolian Shi") sizes. Its raw materials include bloem fibers, leading some to classify it as cotton paper. However, modern Dalian Shi contains mostly bamboo, allowing classification as bamboo paper. It is white and uniform, with a smooth front and rough back, free of plant debris. Fine and durable like cotton yarn but slightly less resilient, it tended to bleed ink. After the Qianlong reign, it became common for book printing and is essential in ancient book restoration for pasting, lining, or leaf covers-especially suitable for bamboo paper book leaf covers, though not for outer covers.
10. Mechanized Paper (Foreign History)
Similar to Lianshi paper but slightly yellow, with a smooth, shiny front and rough back. Thin and brittle, it is poorly suited for preservation. Emerging later, it was used in late Qing and early Republican book printing, such as the Zhonghua Book Company's edition of *Four Volumes of Essentials*. Over time, aging causes yellow spots to appear.
11. Machine-Made Paper with Foreign Powder
A machine-made paper, grayish-white, smooth on the front and rough on the back, thin and brittle, unsuitable for long-term storage. Widely used in lithographic prints from the late Qing to the early Republic of China.
12. Shanbei and Benzao Paper
Both are bamboo-grass papers produced in Guangdong. Shanbei paper is yellow, while Benzao paper is white. The *Wai Ju Zhen Ben* series published by Guangya Bookstore in Guangdong primarily used these papers.
13. Submission Paper (Spacer Paper)
Thick and coarse, with a smooth front and rough back, soft and weak. Unsuitable for printing or direct book repair, but due to its high water absorption, it serves as spacer paper in restoration to pad books and absorb moisture.
(V) Other Specialty Papers
1. Magnetic Blue (or Antique) Paper
Used for ancient book covers, it involves Xuan or rough-edge paper dyed in magnetic blue or antique colors (e.g., chestnut shell, beige, bronze), then mounted with a matching layer.
2. Tiger Skin Xuan
Xuan paper dyed with tiger skin patterns (yellow and white) and mounted with a matching layer, used as decorative book covers.
3. Wax Paper
Produced during the Ming and Qing dynasties from plant phloem fibers, it is thick, tough, and exhibits a waxy sheen. Suitable for book covers or leaf guards.
4. Hair Paper
Made from plant phloem fibers with added human hair to enhance toughness, resembling Korean paper. Ideal for fine book covers.
5. Sprinkled Gold Paper
Created by evenly applying gold and silver foil onto alum-treated Xuan paper. Resistant to discoloration, it includes Snow Gold and Rain Gold types, collectively known as sprinkled or cold gold paper. Suitable for precious book covers or bookmarks.
